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Latest Class 10th Science NCERT Concepts & Solutions
1. Chemical Reactions And Equations
This chapter introduces the fundamental concept of chemical reactions, which are processes involving the breaking and making of chemical bonds to form new substances. It explains how to represent these reactions using symbolic chemical equations, with reactants on the left and products on the right. The chapter emphasizes the importance of balancing equations to satisfy the Law of Conservation of Mass. It classifies reactions into various types, including Combination, Decomposition (thermal, electrolytic, photolytic), Displacement, and Double Displacement reactions. Additionally, it introduces Redox reactions, covering the concepts of oxidation (gain of oxygen or loss of electrons) and reduction (loss of oxygen or gain of electrons).
2. Acids, Bases And Salts
This chapter explores the properties and chemistry of three important classes of compounds: Acids, Bases, and Salts. It describes acids as substances that are sour and turn blue litmus red, while bases are bitter, soapy to touch, and turn red litmus blue. The concept of the pH scale is introduced as a measure of hydrogen ion concentration, indicating the acidic or basic strength of a solution. A key reaction discussed is Neutralisation, where an acid reacts with a base to form a salt and water. The chapter also covers the preparation, properties, and everyday uses of important salts like common salt (NaCl), baking soda (NaHCO₃), and washing soda (Na₂CO₃·10H₂O).
3. Metals And Non-Metals
This chapter delves into the distinct physical properties (like lustre, malleability, ductility, and conductivity) and chemical properties that differentiate metals and non-metals. It explains their reactivity based on their tendency to lose or gain electrons. The reactivity series of metals, an arrangement of metals in descending order of their reactivity, is introduced to predict the outcomes of displacement reactions. The chapter explains the formation of ionic compounds through the transfer of electrons between a metal and a non-metal, highlighting their characteristic high melting points and electrical conductivity in the molten state.
4. Carbon And Its Compounds
This chapter introduces the vast and vital field of organic chemistry, centred on the unique element carbon. It explains carbon's versatile nature, attributed to its tetravalency (forming four bonds) and catenation (the ability to form long chains with itself). The chapter discusses hydrocarbons, classifying them as saturated (alkanes) and unsaturated (alkenes and alkynes). It introduces functional groups, which determine the chemical properties of organic compounds. Concepts like isomers (compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures) and homologous series are explained. The properties of important carbon compounds like ethanol and ethanoic acid, along with the cleansing action of soaps and detergents, are also detailed.
5. Life Processes
This comprehensive biology chapter covers the basic processes essential for maintaining life, collectively known as life processes. It provides a detailed study of four key functions: Nutrition, which includes autotrophic (e.g., photosynthesis in plants) and heterotrophic modes; Respiration, the process of energy release from food, covering both aerobic and anaerobic pathways; Transportation, which involves the circulatory system in animals (heart, blood) and the vascular system in plants (xylem, phloem); and Excretion, the removal of metabolic waste products from the body, focusing on the human urinary system.
6. Control And Coordination
Living organisms must respond to changes in their environment, which requires intricate systems of control and coordination. This chapter explores the nervous system and the endocrine system in animals. It details the structure and function of the neuron (nerve cell), the human brain, and the pathway of a reflex arc. The endocrine system's role is explained through hormones, which act as chemical messengers. The chapter also discusses coordination in plants, which is achieved through plant hormones (phytohormones) that regulate growth and trigger responses like phototropism and geotropism.
7. How Do Organisms Reproduce?
Reproduction is the biological process vital for the continuation of species. This chapter explains the two major modes of reproduction. It covers various methods of asexual reproduction, where a single parent is involved, such as fission, fragmentation, regeneration, budding, vegetative propagation, and spore formation. It then details sexual reproduction, which involves two parents and the fusion of gametes. Sexual reproduction in flowering plants (including pollination and fertilisation) and in humans (detailing the male and female reproductive systems) is explained, highlighting its importance in creating genetic variation within a population.
8. Heredity
This chapter introduces the principles of heredity, the passing of traits from one generation to the next. It is based on the pioneering work of Gregor Mendel and his experiments with pea plants, leading to his fundamental laws of inheritance. Key genetic concepts are defined, including genes (units of heredity), alleles (different forms of a gene), genotype (the genetic makeup), and phenotype (the observable characteristics). The chapter also explains the mechanism of sex determination in humans, illustrating how the X and Y chromosomes determine whether an individual is male (XY) or female (XX).
9. Light – Reflection And Refraction
This chapter explores two fundamental phenomena of light: reflection and refraction. It explains the Laws of Reflection and their application to image formation by plane and spherical mirrors (concave and convex). It then discusses refraction, the bending of light as it passes from one medium to another, governed by the Laws of Refraction (including Snell's Law). The chapter details image formation by spherical lenses (concave and convex) using ray diagrams. Important formulas like the mirror formula, lens formula ($\frac{1}{\textsf{v}} - \frac{1}{\textsf{u}} = \frac{1}{\textsf{f}}$), and magnification are introduced for problem-solving.
10. The Human Eye And The Colourful World
This chapter applies the principles of light to explain the working of the human eye and various natural optical phenomena. It details the structure and function of the eye, including its ability to focus via the power of accommodation. Common defects of vision like myopia (nearsightedness) and hypermetropia (farsightedness), and their correction using appropriate lenses, are discussed. The chapter also explains fascinating phenomena like the dispersion of white light by a prism, atmospheric refraction (causing the twinkling of stars), and the scattering of light (which accounts for the blue colour of the sky and the reddish appearance of the sun at sunrise and sunset).
11. Electricity
This fundamental physics chapter introduces the concepts of electricity. It begins by defining electric charge and electric current ($\textsf{I} = \frac{\textsf{Q}}{\textsf{t}}$). It explains potential difference ($\textsf{V}$) and introduces the crucial relationship between voltage, current, and resistance through Ohm's Law ($\textsf{V} = \textsf{IR}$). The chapter discusses factors affecting the resistance of a conductor and analyses the equivalent resistance of resistors connected in series and parallel. It also covers the heating effect of electric current (Joule's Law: $\textsf{H} = \textsf{I}^2\textsf{Rt}$) and defines electric power ($\textsf{P} = \textsf{VI}$).
12. Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current
This chapter reveals the intimate connection between electricity and magnetism. It establishes that an electric current produces a magnetic field, describing the pattern of field lines around a straight conductor, a circular loop, and a solenoid. It explains the force experienced by a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field, the direction of which is given by Fleming's Left-Hand Rule, which is the working principle of an electric motor. The chapter then introduces electromagnetic induction—the phenomenon of producing an induced current in a coil by changing the magnetic field around it. This principle, governed by Fleming's Right-Hand Rule, is the basis for the electric generator.
13. Our Environment
This chapter focuses on the interactions within our environment and the impact of human activities. It introduces the concept of an ecosystem, with its biotic and abiotic components. It explains the flow of energy through food chains and food webs, highlighting the 10% energy transfer law between trophic levels. The chapter discusses pressing environmental problems, including the accumulation of biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste. A major focus is on the depletion of the ozone layer, which protects us from harmful UV radiation, and the global efforts to manage this issue. The chapter emphasizes our responsibility to manage our waste and protect the environment for a sustainable future.